Violence against Women in Canada

Violence Against Women in Canada

Introduction

Gender-based violence threatens many countries all around the world. Thus, violence against women, which is the most common type, affects the human rights, equality, and dignity of women in all countries around the world. Women’s vulnerability to violence impairs and violates their human freedoms and rights. The historical events and research have enlightened the multifaceted nature of male violence directed at women. Such acts of violence encompass human rights, criminal and social justice, health, and economic dimensions. Violence manifests itself in many forms, affecting women from different sides both at a social and individual level. Around the world, women experience sexual harassment, intimate partner violence, rape, trafficking, prostitution, and other forms of femicide. While considerable improvements have been made in tackling violence against women in Canada, new forms are emerging that are rather profound. Victims often suffer from long-lasting psychological and emotional traumas that affect their health and children. Violence against women requires special support and concern from the government and social organizations. This study aims to observe how violence against women in Canada affects them, infringing their human rights and freedoms.

The International Framework of Women’s Violence

In the 1990s, violence against women has received the status of a public health problem and was determined as a leading cause of women’s death and injury (DeKeseredy, 2011). The World Health Organization and other agencies enhanced their activity in public awareness campaigns directed toward violence prevention. Participants of the Global Campaign for Women’s Human Rights in Vienna that took place in Vienna in 1993 acknowledged that violence against women brought with its violation of their freedoms and rights, affecting their health and children’s wellbeing in the families (Johnson, Ollus, & Nevala, 2007). Since then, authorities have begun to recognize this problem as an important societal issue that requires not only private but also social attention. As thus, the definition of violence against women has acquired a broader meaning, implying the concept of discrimination. The social concern of the federal government to this phenomenon has increased women’s vulnerabilities to violence (Lombard & McMillan, 2013). These inequalities include rights to obtain a divorce, inherit property, and access to employment or education.

According to DeKeseredy (2011), until 1945 international law did not identify specific individual rights, but the establishment of the United Nations Organization altered this dramatically. The Universal Declaration of Human Rights of 1948 initiated the promotion of the rights of women in Canada (Johnson et al., 2007). It also proposed specific attention to equality between men and women. However, these two guidelines did not offer any concrete guidelines against women's discrimination. In the 1950s and 1960s, the United Nations issued instruments governing women’s political rights as well as their marriage rights based on the principles of non-discrimination, equality, and generality (DeKeseredy, 2011). However, these assumptions were legally marginalized till the 1970s. Different international organizations such as the World Health Organization, the United Nations, and others were working hard to improve women’s safety in public and private spaces.

Nowadays, the world community faces serious challenges connected with violence against women such as organized crime and trafficking in people. Therefore, all nations should standardize the terminology, practices, and laws to curb organized crime and trafficking in persons. The United Nations Protocol requires the world community to incorporate trafficking in persons as an international threat. Thus, all nations are searching for ways to curb all forms of cruelty against women. Nowadays, member states of different organizations are obliged to fulfill the requirements and intensify their national and international actions to combat all forms of gender-based violence.

Evolution of Studies on Violence against Women

The importance of valid statistical tools to determine violence against women for successful policymaking has received the profound attention of international and Canadian agencies and conventions. In 1995, the conference in Beijing emphasized the importance of valid statistical data in evaluating violence against women and recommended providing research on the prevalence of different forms of gender-based violence, its causes, nature, and consequences (Fileborn, 2015). To stop violence and monitor its cases, different organizations and committees were established in Canada. Since then, the authorities have studied all forms of manifestation of this type of violence, strengthening their efforts to gather statistics. Although data collection in this field is extremely challenging, it has resulted in monitoring progress. However, due to specific factors such as shame, fairness, and concerns about the reaction of the community often prevent women from reporting acts of violence. Moreover, the self-completion component increases disclosure of women’s violence, especially in the family.

Many critics argue that detailed questionaries should be used to measure sexual or domestic violence to assess complexities in women’s experiences and determine methodological improvements (DeKeseredy, 2011). Numerous surveys focus on everyday conflicts within marriage relating to resolving conflicts or disputes. This approach portrays both women and men as victims and perpetrators of violence in marriage. According to various studies, Statistics Canada is the first national agency to measure women’s victimization and provide a survey (Lombard & McMillan, 2013). As a rule, a survey serves to determine women’s experiences of violent victimization, involving interviews with randomly selected women. This survey has been conducted with the help of service providers and advocates, counseling groups, government officials, and police.

Canada’s population-based surveys are now recognized as offering the most reliable method to estimate the nature of violence against women. Unlike statistics derived from the police, as well as health or social service agencies, randomly selected samples can better estimate violence in the broader population. As thus, they are more effective for policy development and research purposes and carry a health-oriented character. National-representative samples that have been largely repeated have been compared overtime to implement effective methodologies to prevent violence. For example, the World Health Organization (WHO) has estimated the prevalence of emotional, physical, and sexual violence against women, emphasizing the violence of intimate partners (Johnson et al., 2007). These initiatives have contributed to the development of research methodologies aiming to prevent and respond to violence against women.

Historical Review of the Problem

Canada is a recognized leader in the development and implementation of policies to combat domestic violence. DeKeseredy (2011) believes that the country has conducted a study on violence against women for more than twenty years. The large-scale nationwide study “Canadian survey on violence against women” undertaken in 1991-1993 was aimed at collecting the data necessary for understanding the nature and extent of this phenomenon (Lombard & McMillan, 2013). The telephone interview samples included 123,000 women who experienced various forms of violence in marriage. It was proved that domestic violence resulted in significant medical costs. Many findings reveal that the cooperation of states with the World Bank and other international organizations improves the stability of women in society and their families (DeKeseredy, 2011). However, women who suffer from different forms of violence against them experience different health problems such as physical, emotional, and psychological. Admittedly, the damage caused by violence is similar both in developing and developed countries.

According to the Vancouver Center for the Study of Violence, the country is losing 7 million dollars in earnings annually because of Canadian women who have lost their ability to work as a result of attacks (Johnson et al., 2007). Furthermore, the social security system consumes 1.8 million dollars per year giving support to women who have had to interrupt their family or partnerships because of violence (DeKeseredy, 2011). According to experts, huge sums of money are spent annually to compensate medical expenses and loss of working hours due to domestic, sexual, and other forms of violence (Johnson & Leone, 2005). Different programs aimed at preventing violence against women indicate a new stage in the development of public policies to combat domestic violence. According to Lombard and McMillan (2013), the problem of domestic violence is interrelated with social programs of many government departments such as the Ministry of Health, the Department of Justice, the Ministry of Women's Affairs, Office of Statistics Canada, and others. The Prosecutor General's Office and Ministry of Justice have also been involved in the implementation of the program. The fact that Canadian women often complain about rudeness and lack of tact in law enforcement encourages the police to receive instructions and information materials to assist victims of violence. Canadian lawyers have prepared a special allowance for social workers supporting victims of domestic violence. In addition, the Parliament has presented amendments to the existing legislation relating to the tightening of the rules of early release or parole from prison for perpetrators (DeKeseredy, 2011). Other proposed modifications are intended to facilitate a woman in court and to release her from many humiliating formalities.

Legislation and Policy

In Canada, provincial and territorial governments bear the responsibility for the development of policy and social services, education, and health. It determines the type of government necessary to support services for women subjected to violence, as well as their funding. The governments of all provinces and territories of Canada pay much attention to the prohibition of violence against women, focusing on preventive measures by using the opportunity of the education system. Different organizations that develop services for survivors of violence and increase demands on the human rights system take various measures to ensure the safety of women. At the same time, there is a desire to address the needs of groups with special needs: women with disabilities, Aboriginal women, and representatives of national minorities (Fileborn, 2015).

According to Lombard and McMillan (2013), law enforcement systems of all Canadian provinces and territories are based on the principle of “zero tolerance” to all manifestations of violence. The police and courts are ordered to act decisively and quickly. To implement such installations, the authorities improve the development of educational programs and training for police officers, prosecutors, penitentiary institutions, and patrol services. In Ontario, for example, the annual training is held for prosecutors specializing in cases involving sexual and domestic violence. In some provinces such as Nova Scotia, similar training is provided to all police officers, law enforcement, and penitentiary institutions. Province Saskechevan also provides training of law enforcement officers and employees of local authorities and social services by the Victims of Domestic Violence Act effective in this province (Johnson et al., 2007). Along with training, Canadian provinces and territories prepare training materials, including practical guides for the royal prosecutors, correctional institutions, and law enforcement agencies.

The work is also carried out to prevent violence such as resource service for the prevention of domestic violence by local organizations. An information pack for young people has been developed to expand their knowledge about the possibility of dating violence and violence against women (Bickerstaff, 2010). This work aims to raise the consciousness of the youth and ensure preventive action in the case of a threat of violence. For example, the province of Manitoba has developed three types of educational programs for offenders: (a) 24-hour classes in group counseling that are available in 6 languages; (b) 84-hour program of intensive care for those who are exempted from punishment on probation; and (c) a 300-hour program for those who are in detention. There are also programs for individual counseling offenders.

The research asserts that since 1990 the court of domestic violence has been functioning in Winnipeg, being established under public pressure for the thorough and fair investigation of cases of violence between spouses regarding children and the elderly (Fileborn, 2015). As a rule, special courts offer similar approaches to different forms of violence to women and men because all of them are the manifestation of human rights and freedoms violations. In addition, as a part of the indictment process, the Women’s Advocacy Program has been created to protect women, which provides support for women at all stages of interaction with the human rights system. Thus, the recently established court on domestic violence helps victims to achieve success in court hearings. However, before that such cases were considered to be minor ones and low qualified specialists were engaged in the process.

Help to Survivors

By the Victims of Domestic Violence Act, Canadian provinces and territories should enact warrant entitling immediate attention at any time by specially trained magistrates. These orders can provide victims with exclusive ownership of common housing, protect victims of domestic violence from any contact with the offender, and require police surveillance of the particular home. In addition, the order may provide additional funds such as financial compensation to the victim. It may include payment for relocation services, dentist, lawyer, etc. A special order to enter the residence allows officials to monitor the situation and, if necessary, evacuate victims especially if victims are the elderly or people with disabilities. Violation of any part of this Act is a criminal offense. Every police officer receives specialized training on domestic violence issues and the application of the new legislation.

Since 1988, in Ontario, particularly in the province’s largest city of Toronto, the Domestic Violence Emergency Response System has been used to immediately respond to manifestations of domestic violence (Lombard & McMillan, 2013). The founders of this system have been the Canadian Security Service, support services for victims, and the police in Toronto that provide free victims with portable signaling equipment. Its operations are carried out around the clock. When a family member is in danger, he or she can use this instrument to give a signal that is transmitted immediately to the police as a call of special importance. Families at risk are determined by local social services or law enforcement agencies. The DVERS system is the first of its kind in North America. Toronto is the 26th city in Canada that has used the system, which is implemented in 130 US cities (Bickerstaff, 2010).

In Ontario, there are two types of courts on domestic violence. The courts of the first type review simple cases, including those where spouses are encouraged to continue living together, as well as cases that relate to the first time of violating the law. The courts of the second type review more serious cases that require severe punishment. The improvement of legal proceedings in Canadian courts is the evidence that victims of violence are reliably protected by the state (Fileborn, 2015). The study has shown that the defense tactics of creating two types of courts for cases of domestic violence gradually have changed the attitude of judges and the public toward victims. Positive results have also been achieved in the implementation of programs for offenders. These programs are being intensively developed in Canada, giving the best results if interference occurs at an early stage of the development of domestic violence.

The Movement to Create Shelters for Women who Experience Violence

Until the 1970s, Canadian social services did not provide shelters for abused women (Johnson & Leone, 2005). Sometimes, help was given by religious or charitable organizations. Only in the 1970s, when the violence began to be discussed widely in society, there was the need to create safe havens for victims of violence. The first of them were located in guest houses, including the house of temporary stay in Vancouver and Toronto. In 1980, there were already more than 70 shelters across Canada and by 1990 there was a network of 400 houses located both in urban and rural areas (Brownridge, 2002). Women and children seek treatment at Canadian shelters for victims of violence. Services provided to women and children in shelters include therapeutic counseling, individual and group counseling, and a 24-hour crisis telephone line. Social workers also help with appeals to lawyers and other organizations. Many shelters provide educational programs, fund-raising activities, and training for the staff and volunteers. In many towns in Canada, phone numbers of local shelters for female victims of domestic or sexual violence, as well as of crisis centers, hotlines, and services for children suffering from abuse are printed on the first pages of phone books.

Funds for these services and shelters are available thanks to federal, provincial, or municipal governments. In addition, some financing is received from non-governmental sources (donations, fundraising by shelters, lotteries, loans, and guarantees) (Johnson et al., 2007). For example, the government in Ontario guarantees support to women who have been subjected to violence, including financing, counseling, training, and rehabilitation. Regular monitoring helps determine the effectiveness of these projects.

Many findings reveal that the Canadian government takes into consideration the recommendations of the Commission on the development of a national strategy to eliminate violence, taking additional measures aimed at supporting those groups that have no access to such centers (Brownridge, 2002). They relate primarily to women living in rural areas, as well as indigenous, minority, and immigrant women with disabilities. Although Canadian women’s organizations criticize the government for the lack of funding and uneven spatial distribution of services, one thing is clear: Canadian women are not alone in trouble; they have where to go in times of sorrow and despair. Many centers are active in social activities, taking part in the legislative process in addition to educational and educational work. Thus, representatives of crisis centers have achieved inclusion in the legislation of the concept of marital rape. Therefore, crisis centers and shelters are a part of the government program on domestic violence that has been in effect since 1988 (Bickerstaff, 2010).

The Importance of Canadian Experience in Combating Violence against Women

Canada ranks one of the leading places in the world among countries that fight domestic violence. It is known for its federal and regional laws and social programs at the local level aimed at combating violence. According to Fileborn (2015), for many years the problem of cruelty against women was not recognized in the country and it received a profound concern only in the 1970s. There were no support groups, hotlines, and crisis centers. At all levels, there was an opinion that if a woman was subjected to violence, it was her fault because she had provoked it. The turning point in the history of the movement against violence against women was the tragic events of December 6, 1969, when the fault maniac killed 14 students in Montreal (Johnson & Leone, 2005). This heinous crime shocked the country and caused a wave of indignation. It was then when a women’s organization called Coalition against Violence against Women was established, which launched a campaign to collect signatures demanding the government to take measures to curb the violence. The petition was signed by 26,000 people and the reaction of the parliament was immediate (Bickerstaff, 2010).

The efforts of the public were not in vain because they managed to attract the attention of the authorities to the sore issue of Canadian women, attempting to include this issue on the agenda of the government. Since then, the Canadian government has granted subsidies to crisis centers and shelters for women survivors of violence, and such services are funded by federal and provincial budgets, as well as by voluntary donations. Today, the problem of domestic violence is integrated into the ongoing programs of many government departments. Particular attention is paid to medical assistance to victims of abuse within the family. The Ministry of Health, along with medical schools and associations of doctors and nurses organize courses and training seminars for the medical personnel working with survivors of domestic violence (Bickerstaff, 2010). Under the direction of the Ministry, the rules of conduct for physicians have also been developed and a guide for nurses has been published, assisting victims of domestic violence. The Prosecutor General’s Office and the Ministry of Justice have been involved in the implementation of the program as well.

Since Canadian women often complain about the rudeness and the lack of tact of law enforcement, the police have undertaken special training for working with survivors of violence. Canadian governments of all provinces and territories pay much attention to the prohibition of violence against women, focusing on preventive measures. The police and courts are ordered to act decisively and quickly. As mentioned above, for the realization of such instructions training programs and training for the police, prosecutors, penitentiary institutions, and patrol services have been developed all over the country. In Canadian provinces and territories, cases of domestic violence no longer fall within the category of minor cases and they engage highly qualified specialists.

Forms of Violence against Women

As mentioned above, violence against women can be manifested in different forms such as physical, sexual, psychological, and economic (Brownridge, 2002). Usually, all forms of violence are interrelated with each other, which has a huge impact on women’s physical, emotional, and psychological health. One of the most dangerous forms of women’s violence is trafficking in people and it has very dangerous consequences. As a rule, violence affects women’s health, leading to serious health-related problems, and they cannot participate fully in public life. The problem of violence against women involves different authorities, educators, and social workers who can help to resolve it. For example, women alone are rather weak to resist violence in their homes because they cannot resist men due to their physical abilities. This tendency has been observed from ancient times when women were disenfranchised and helpless in their families. Nowadays, it seems that men still want to have an advantage over women. Therefore, violence against women is determined by historical discrimination and humiliation in the family. Many findings reveal that about seventy percent of women suffer more from violence than from diseases (DeKeseredy, 2011).

Many findings reveal that Canada still experiences violations of the rights of indigenous people, including women (Johnson et al., 2007). It happens because the approach of the government to human rights has always been motivated solely by political interests. In the minds of most people, Canada seems to be a civilized country with a highly developed economy, as well as being exemplary in terms of protecting human rights and freedoms. However, few people know that the mass murder of Aboriginal women who represent the indigenous peoples of this country has occurred in Canada in recent years. While in 2008 Prime Minister Stephen Harper apologized to indigenous peoples for the “cultural genocide” on behalf of the state, the government has been in no hurry to publicly investigate the facts of murders despite numerous calls from the UN and human rights organizations (Bickerstaff, 2010).

Aboriginal women in Canada constitute only a small amount of the female population (4 percent), but in the past three decades, they have been disproportionately affected by violence, exploitation, and murder (DeKeseredy, 2011). The Aboriginal population is represented by the Indians. Eskimos, Aleuts, Matis, and other Aboriginal people are less numerous. In total, there are about 1.4 million indigenous people. The majority of these people are mired in poverty, lack adequate housing, and limited access to education and work. According to statistics, life expectancy for indigenous people is lower than that of other Canadians and, in addition, they are much more likely to become victims of violent crimes (Bickerstaff, 2010). Last year, under public pressure Canadian police admitted that only since the 1980s more than 1,200 Aboriginal women had been killed or were missing in the country (DeKeseredy, 2011). Thus, it became clear that crimes against indigenous women had been systematic. Meanwhile, not investigated murders or disappearance of Aboriginal women in suspicious circumstances were observed as early as in the middle of the last century. This problem was ignored for many years by the authorities and when the officials announced these figures, many were shocked. Till now, indigenous Canadians require the government to investigate disappearances and killings of Aboriginal girls and women nationwide.

Some time ago, members of the Association of Indigenous Women in Canada took extreme measures to attract the attention of the country’s leadership to the problem of violence against Aboriginal women and girls. Then, the protesters blocked the main railway from Montreal to Toronto and the adjacent highway. A recent Canadian report of the Commission on Truth and Reconciliation is dedicated to closed private schools in Canada in which indigenous children were necessarily taken (Johnson et al., 2007). This practice existed in the country for over a century – from 1883 to 1998 and in 2008 alone the Government of Canada officially apologized to indigenous peoples for the “cultural genocide” (DeKeseredy, 2011). The document was based on the state certificates, school records, as well as interviews of 6,750 students who were severely punished, humiliated in various ways, and even sexually abused (Bickerstaff, 2010). In most schools, especially those that belong to the Catholic Church, the schedule of classes and their content were more like a prison where students like prisoners were referred not by name, but by a serial number.

Last year, the Conservative government of Stephen Harper was under sharp criticism from the United Nations. Thus, a report on the situation of indigenous women living in Canada was issued by the Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women. According to the document, in Canada, the rights of Aboriginal women are grossly violated and the government does nothing to combat discrimination against women and investigate their numerous disappearances and killings. It happens because socio-economic disparities between Aboriginal women and the rest of the population are expanding. Incidents of violence against Aboriginal women in Canada are more common than the other population of women.

Conclusion

The study has shown that violence against women is of sharp importance in Canada. Despite many achievements in the field, the problem still exists relating to Aboriginal women who are largely violated in this country. Often, the government ignores violence against these women and girls. Nonetheless, Canada is a worldwide leader in the fight against violence that takes different forms and methods of opposition to this evil. A high moral price has been paid for violence against women. Its achievements can be considered not only in the preparation and implementation of projects of non-governmental organizations but also in the preparation and implementation of government programs at both local and national levels. The police and courts are ordered to act decisively and quickly and the governments of all territories and provinces pay much attention to the prohibition of violence against women, focusing on preventive measures. Authorities at all levels work closely with non-governmental organizations, as well as educational and cultural institutions. It is the key to the successful development of the Canadian way of creation of the society where the principle of universal tolerance to violence is implemented.